Молния, Наука. Часть 1: Современный взгляд
Ключевые слова:
молния, грозовые облака, структура заряда, ракетные молнии, отрицательные молнии типа «облако-земля», молниевые процессы
Аннотация
Молния может быть определена как переходный, многоамперный (обычно десятки кА) электрический разряд в воздухе, длина которого измеряется в км. Как и любой разряд в воздухе, канал молнии состоит из ионизированного газа, т. е. плазмы, пиковая температура которой обычно составляет 30 000 К, что примерно в пять раз выше температуры поверхности Солнца. Молния присутствовала на Земле задолго до того, как возникла человеческая жизнь, и, возможно, даже сыграла решающую роль в эволюции жизни на нашей планете. Глобальная скорость вспышки молнии составляет от нескольких десятков до 100 км/с. Ежегодно в Соединенных Штатах происходит около 25 млн молниевых разрядов от облаков до земли и ожидается, что это число увеличится примерно на 50% из-за глобального потепления в течение XXI в. Молния инициирует многие лесные пожары, и более 30% всех отказов линий электропередачи связаны с молнией. Каждый коммерческий самолет поражается молнией в среднем раз в год. Удар молнии в незащищенный объект или систему может быть катастрофическим. В первой части статьи дается обзор грозовых облаков и их зарядовой структуры, вводится базовая терминология молний, описываются различные типы молний (в том числе так называемые ракетные молнии). Для наиболее распространенных негативных молний типа «облако-земля» определены основные молниевые процессы и рассмотрены существующие гипотезы инициирования молний в грозовых облаках.
Литература
1. Moore C.B., Vonnegut B. The thundercloud. In Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, Physics of Lightning, New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp. 51–98.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
#
1. Moore C.B., Vonnegut B. The thundercloud. In Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, Physics of Lightning, New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp. 51–98.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
#
1. Moore C.B., Vonnegut B. The thundercloud. In Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, Physics of Lightning, New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp. 51–98.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
